Standardised bioassays reveal that mosquitoes learn to avoid compounds used in chemical vector control after a single sub-lethal exposure.

Vector-borne diseases are worldwide public health issues. Despite research focused on vectorial capacity determinants in pathogen transmitting mosquitoes, their behavioural plasticity remains poorly understood. Memory and associative learning have been linked to behavioural changes in several insect species, but their relevance in behavioural responses to pesticide vector control has been largely overlooked. In this study, female Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciastus were exposed to sub-lethal doses of 5 pesticide compounds using modified World Health Organization (WHO) tube bioassays. Conditioned females, subsequently exposed to the same pesticides in WHO tunnel assays, exhibited behavioural avoidance by forgoing blood-feeding to ensure survival. Standardized resting site choice tests showed that pre-exposed females avoided the pesticides smell and choose to rest in a pesticide-free compartment. These results showed that, following a single exposure, mosquitoes can associate the olfactory stimulus of pesticides with their detrimental effects and subsequently avoid pesticide contact. Findings highlight the importance of mosquito cognition as determinants of pesticide resistance in mosquito populations targeted by chemical control.

Culicidae evolutionary history focusing on the Culicinae subfamily based on mitochondrial phylogenomics.

Mosquitoes are insects of medical importance due their role as vectors of different pathogens to humans. There is a lack of information about the evolutionary history and phylogenetic positioning of the majority of mosquito species. Here we characterized the mitogenomes of mosquito species through low-coverage whole genome sequencing and data mining. A total of 37 draft mitogenomes of different species were assembled from which 16 are newly-sequenced species. We datamined additional 49 mosquito mitogenomes, and together with our 37 mitogenomes, we reconstructed the evolutionary history of 86 species including representatives from 15 genera and 7 tribes. Our results showed that most of the species clustered in clades with other members of their own genus with exception of Aedes genus which was paraphyletic. We confirmed the monophyletic status of the Mansoniini tribe including both Coquillettidia and Mansonia genus. The Aedeomyiini and Uranotaeniini were consistently recovered as basal to other tribes in the subfamily Culicinae, although the exact relationships among these tribes differed between analyses. These results demonstrate that low-coverage sequencing is effective to recover mitogenomes, establish phylogenetic knowledge and hence generate basic fundamental information that will help in the understanding of the role of these species as pathogen vectors.

Chemical Compositions, Mosquito Larvicidal and Antimicrobial Activities of Essential Oils from Five Species of Cinnamomum Growing Wild in North Central Vietnam.

Members of the genus Cinnamomum (Lauraceae) have aromatic volatiles in their leaves and bark and some species are commercially important herbs and spices. In this work, the essential oils from five species of Cinnamomum (C. damhaensis, C. longipetiolatum, C. ovatum, C. polyadelphum and C. tonkinense) growing wild in north central Vietnam were obtained by hydrodistillation, analyzed by gas chromatography and screened for antimicrobial and mosquito larvicidal activity. The leaf essential oil of C. tonkinense, rich in ß-phellandrene (23.1%) and linalool (32.2%), showed excellent antimicrobial activity (MIC of 32 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albicans) and larvicidal activity (24 h LC50 of 17.4 µg/mL on Aedes aegypti and 14.1 µg/mL against Culex quinquefasciatus). Cinnamomum polyadelphum leaf essential oil also showed notable antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria and mosquito larvicidal activity, attributable to relatively high concentrations of neral (11.7%) and geranial (16.6%). Thus, members of the genus Cinnamomum from Vietnam have shown promise as antimicrobial agents and as potential vector control agents for mosquitoes.

A Mathematical Model for the Transmission Dynamics of Lymphatic Filariasis with Intervention Strategies.

This manuscript considers the transmission dynamics of lymphatic filariasis with some intervention strategies in place. Unlike previously developed models, our model takes into account both the exposed and infected classes in both the human and mosquito populations, respectively. We also consider vaccinated, treated and recovered humans in the presented model. The global dynamics of the proposed model are completely determined by the basic ([Formula: see text]) and effective reproduction numbers ([Formula: see text]). We then use Lyapunov function theory to find the sufficient conditions for global stability of both the disease-free equilibrium and endemic equilibrium. The Lyapunov functions show that when the basic reproduction number is less than or equal to unity, the disease-free equilibrium is globally asymptotically stable, and when it is greater than unity then the endemic equilibrium is also globally asymptotically stable. Finally, numerical simulations are carried out to investigate the effects of the intervention strategies and key parameters to the spread of lymphatic filariasis. The numerical simulations support the analytical results and illustrate possible model behavioral scenarios.

Climate drivers of malaria at its southern fringe in the Americas.

In this work we analyze potential environmental drivers of malaria cases in Northwestern Argentina. We inspect causal links between malaria and climatic variables by means of the convergent cross mapping technique, which provides a causality criterion from the theory of dynamic systems. Analysis is based on 12 years of weekly malaria P. vivax cases in Tartagal, Salta, Argentina-at the southern fringe of malaria incidence in the Americas-together with humidity and temperature time-series spanning the same period. Our results show that there are causal links between malaria cases and both maximum temperature, with a delay of five weeks, and minimum temperature, with delays of zero and twenty two weeks. Humidity is also a driver of malaria cases, with thirteen weeks delay between cause and effect. Furthermore we also determined the sign and strength of the effects. Temperature has always a positive non-linear effect on cases, with maximum temperature effects more pronounced above 25°C and minimum above 17°C, while effects of humidity are more intricate: maximum humidity above 85% has a negative effect, whereas minimum humidity has a positive effect on cases. These results might be signaling processes operating at short (below 5 weeks) and long (over 12 weeks) time delays, corresponding to effects related to parasite cycle and mosquito population dynamics respectively. The non-linearities found for the strength of the effect of temperature on malaria cases make warmer areas more prone to higher increases in the disease incidence. Moreover, our results indicate that an increase of extreme weather events could enhance the risks of malaria spreading and re-emergence beyond the current distribution. Both situations, warmer climate and increase of extreme events, will be remarkably increased by the end of the century in this hot spot of climate change.

Local Transmission of Zika Virus in Miami-Dade County: The Florida Department of Health Rises to the Challenge.

As early as 2015, Florida and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) public health officials recognized the potential danger of Zika for US residents and visitors. The Zika virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus, is transmitted through the bite of the Aedes aegypti mosquito. A physician in Miami-Dade notified the Florida Department of Health (DOH) of the first non-travel-related Zika case in the United States. A 23-year old pregnant woman had presented on July 7, 2016, at 23 weeks of gestation, with a 3-day history of fever, widespread pruritic rash, and sore throat. Three more cases, involving men, were reported in Dade and Broward counties. These notifications set into motion additional activities from the DOH's Zika Playbook: increased mosquito surveillance; collaboration with the CDC on recommendations for mosquito abatement techniques; and increased awareness of the risks of Zika. In August, the department reported that active transmission of Zika virus was occurring in one small area in Miami-Dade County known as Wynwood. Mosquito trapping in the area with local transmission identified large numbers of the Zika vector, Aedes aegypti females and a large number of mosquito larval sites. Control efforts included larviciding, eliminating standing water, and backpack and truck spraying of insecticides. A communication strategy was developed that addressed risk mitigation, public concerns over application of noxious pesticides, loss of tourist revenue, and reproductive issues. It was reported on December 28, 2016, that there had been 256 locally acquired cases of infection of Zika, 1011 travel-related cases, and 208 pregnant women with laboratory evidence of Zika. At the end of 2018, 2 years after active Zika virus transmission was controlled in Florida, there have been 101 reported cases of Zika during 2018 but none have been linked to local transmission.

Advances in Zika Virus⁻Host Cell Interaction: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives.

Emerging mosquito-transmitted RNA viruses, such as Zika virus (ZIKV) and Chikungunya represent human pathogens of an immense global health problem. In particular, ZIKV has emerged explosively since 2007 to cause a series of epidemics in the South Pacific and most recently in the Americas. Although typical ZIKV infections are asymptomatic, ZIKV infection during pregnancy is increasingly associated with microcephaly and other fetal developmental abnormalities. In the last few years, genomic and molecular investigations have established a remarkable progress on the pathogenic mechanisms of ZIKV infection using in vitro and in vivo models. Here, we highlight recent advances in ZIKV-host cell interaction studies, including cellular targets of ZIKV, ZIKV-mediated cell death mechanisms, host cell restriction factors that limit ZIKV replication, and immune evasion mechanisms utilized by ZIKV. Understanding of the mechanisms of ZIKV⁻host interaction at the cellular level will contribute crucial insights into the development of ZIKV therapeutics and vaccines.

Climate-driven variation in mosquito density predicts the spatiotemporal dynamics of dengue.

Dengue is a climate-sensitive mosquito-borne disease with increasing geographic extent and human incidence. Although the climate-epidemic association and outbreak risks have been assessed using both statistical and mathematical models, local mosquito population dynamics have not been incorporated in a unified predictive framework. Here, we use mosquito surveillance data from 2005 to 2015 in China to integrate a generalized additive model of mosquito dynamics with a susceptible-infected-recovered (SIR) compartmental model of viral transmission to establish a predictive model linking climate and seasonal dengue risk. The findings illustrate that spatiotemporal dynamics of dengue are predictable from the local vector dynamics, which in turn, can be predicted by climate conditions. On the basis of the similar epidemiology and transmission cycles, we believe that this integrated approach and the finer mosquito surveillance data provide a framework that can be extended to predict outbreak risk of other mosquito-borne diseases as well as project dengue risk maps for future climate scenarios.

Presencia larval de Culex (Culex) interrogator (Dyar and Knab) (Diptera: Culicidae) en Cuba / Larval presence of Culex (Culex) interrogator (Dyar and Knab) (Diptera: Culicidae) in Cuba

Actualmente se conocen más de 3 500 especies de mosquitos y cada día se registran otras de importancia en la transmisión de enfermedades al hombre y los animales. El objetivo de este trabajo es registrar por primera vez la presencia larval de Cx interrogator en la provincia de Santiago de Cuba y en Cuba. Para ello se realizaron los muestreos larvarios en sitios de cría naturales y artificiales con frecuencia semanal durante el 2013-2017, según lo establecido por el Programa de Vigilancia y Control de otros culícidos para la provincia de Santiago de Cuba y adjunto al Programa de Control de Aedes aegypti y Aedes albopictus en Cuba. Las larvas se enviaron al Laboratorio Provincial de Entomología de Santiago de Cuba para su clasificación utilizando claves morfológicas. Posteriormente el material biológico fue enviado al Laboratorio de Referencia Nacional del Instituto de Medicina Tropical Pedro Kourí donde se verificó la identificación taxonómica. Culex interrogator fue colectado en los municipios Palma Soriano y San Luis en el 2013 en Santiago de Cuba, y Songo la Maya y II Frente en 2015 y 2017, respectivamente, todos pertenecientes a la provincia Santiago de Cuba. Los sitios de cría correspondieron a fosas sépticas, sótanos inundados debajo de edificios, lagunas de oxidación, pomos plásticos, zanjas, charcos y cañadas. Se encontró asociado en sitios de cría naturales con Culex nigripalpus, Culex quinquefasciatus y Anopheles albimanus. En conclusión, Cx interrogator constituye un nuevo registro para la entomofauna cubana, de ahí la importancia de ampliar los conocimientos sobre su distribución, asociación con otras especies de culícidos y posible rol en la transmisión de enfermedades al hombre(AU)

Nowadays there are more than 3 500 known species of mosquitoes and everyday are registered some more of importance in disease transmission to men and animals every day. The aim of this study is to register for the first time larval presence of Cx. interrogator in Santiago de Cuba province and in Cuba. In this regard, larval sampling was carried out by the established Surveillance and Control Program of other mosquitoes in Santiago de Cuba province and attached to the Control Program of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus in Cuba; its was carried out in natural and artificial breeding sites with weekly frequency during 2013-2017. The larvae were sent to the Provincial Laboratory of Enthomology of Santiago de Cuba for classification using morphological keys. Subsequently, the biological material was sent to the National Reference Laboratory of Pedro Kourí Institute where the taxonomic identification was verified. Culex interrogator was collected in Palma Soriano and San Luis municipalities in 2013, in Santiago de Cuba, and Songo la Maya and II Frente in 2015 and 2017, respectively, all belonging to Santiago de Cuba province. The breeding sites were septic tanks, flooded basements under buildings, oxidation ponds, plastic bottles, ditches, puddles and streams. This mosquito was found in natural breeding sites associated to Culex nigripalpus, Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles albimanus. As a conclusion, it can be said that Cx. interrogator constitutes a new registry for Cuban entomofauna, hence the importance of expanding knowledge about its distribution, association with other culicid´s species and its possible role in the transmission of diseases to man(AU)

Diversity, distribution, abundance, and feeding pattern of tropical ornithophilic mosquitoes.

Bird-biting mosquitoes act as bridge vectors of diverse pathogens of emerging infectious diseases. In this study, we report for the first time the abundance, diversity, distribution, and feeding pattern of bird-biting mosquitoes on an island where avifaunal diversity is rich. Monthly mosquito collections were done at six different habitats in three different climatic zones using bird-baited traps over a year. Collected mosquitoes were identified using morphological and molecular tools. A total of 2,655 bird-biting mosquitoes of eight genera and 25 species were identified. Of these, 52% were Culex species, which represents 35% of the Culex species in the country. The most abundant species were Culex sitiens, Cx. pseudovishnui, Cx. nigropunctatus and Cx. quinquefasciatus, whereas the latter two were common to all habitats. The highest abundance was reported in lowland forests (49.6%), while it was lowest in highland forests (22.3%). Highest species similarity was reported from highland forests. Seasonal variations of the most abundant species were significantly different in selected habitats (p< 0.05). Two distinct biting peaks were identified, from 06:00 to 21:00 and 22:00 to 02:00. The biting nature of identified ornithophilic mosquitoes suggests the potential vector status of these mosquitoes.

Evolutionary transition from blood feeding to obligate nonbiting in a mosquito.

The spread of blood-borne pathogens by mosquitoes relies on their taking a blood meal; if there is no bite, there is no disease transmission. Although many species of mosquitoes never take a blood meal, identifying genes that distinguish blood feeding from obligate nonbiting is hampered by the fact that these different lifestyles occur in separate, genetically incompatible species. There is, however, one unique extant species with populations that share a common genetic background but blood feed in one region and are obligate nonbiters in the rest of their range: Wyeomyia smithii Contemporary blood-feeding and obligate nonbiting populations represent end points of divergence between fully interfertile southern and northern populations. This divergence has undoubtedly resulted in genetic changes that are unrelated to blood feeding, and the challenge is to winnow out the unrelated genetic factors to identify those related specifically to the evolutionary transition from blood feeding to obligate nonbiting. Herein, we determine differential gene expression resulting from directional selection on blood feeding within a polymorphic population to isolate genetic differences between blood feeding and obligate nonbiting. We show that the evolution of nonbiting has resulted in a greatly reduced metabolic investment compared with biting populations, a greater reliance on opportunistic metabolic pathways, and greater reliance on visual rather than olfactory sensory input. W. smithii provides a unique starting point to determine if there are universal nonbiting genes in mosquitoes that could be manipulated as a means to control vector-borne disease.

Vigilancia entomológica de culícidos en la provincia de Matanzas durante el año 2015 / Entomological surveillance of culicids in the province of Matanzas during 2015

Introducción: la vigilancia entomológica es la recolección de información sobre los vectores de enfermedades y su entorno. Es un componente de la vigilancia epidemiológica, que consiste en una actividad del control de los vectores que se realiza durante todo el año, para conocer la presencia de estos en un área geográfica, la densidad de sus poblaciones, así como identificar los principales criaderos y los más productivos. Objetivo: identificación de las especies de culícidos que circularon en la provincia de Matanzas, durante el año 2015, así como la definición de la especie que predominó y tipificación de los depósitos más colonizados por estos en su fase de vida inmadura. Materiales y Métodos: se realizó un análisis de las estadísticas de la vigilancia entomológica durante el año 2015. Según la metodología descrita en el Programa Nacional de Vigilancia y Lucha Antivectorial se clasificó los depósitos, se colectaron y diagnosticaron las muestras. Resultados: las muestras larvarias aportaron la mayor cantidad de datos. Los depósitos de agua situados en el exterior de las viviendas, y dentro de estos las larvitrampas fueron los más utilizados por los mosquitos. La especie predominante en fase inmadura fue Aedes albopictus, mientras que en fase adulta Culex quinquefasciatus. Conclusiones: se identificaron 5 géneros con 25 especies de culícidos, el 36,8 % de la fauna cubana. Como especie predominante se define al A. albopictus. Los depósitos más explotados por estos organismos según su ubicación, fueron los del exterior, y según su tipo, fueron las larvitrampas (grupo E) (AU).

Introduction: the entomological surveillance is the recollection of information on diseases´ vectors and their environment. It is part of the epidemiologic surveillance, and it is an activity of vectors controlling carried out around the year to determine their presence in a geographical area, the density of their populations, and to identify their main breeding places and the most productive ones. Objectives: to identify the culicids species living in the province of Matanzas during 2015, and also to define the predominating specie and to typify the deposits more colonized by them in the in-mature life stage. Materials and Methods: it was carried out an analysis of the entomological surveillance statistics during 2015. The reservoirs were classified, and the samples were collected and diagnosed according to the methodology described in the National Program of Antivectorial Surveillance and Struggle. Results: the larval samples gave the biggest quantity of data. The water reservoirs located outside the living accommodations, and among them the larval traps were the most used by mosquitoes. The predominant specie found in in-mature stage was Aedes albopictus, while Culex quinquefasciatus predominated in adult stage. Conclusions: 5 genus with 25 species of culicids were found, 36.8 of them part of the Cuban fauna. The Aedes albopictus was defined as the predominant specie. The reservoirs most used by these organisms were, according to their location, those located outside, and according to their type, the larval traps (group E) (AU).

Vigilancia entomológica de culícidos en la provincia de Matanzas durante el año 2015 / Entomological surveillance of culicids in the province of Matanzas during 2015

Introducción: la vigilancia entomológica es la recolección de información sobre los vectores de enfermedades y su entorno. Es un componente de la vigilancia epidemiológica, que consiste en una actividad del control de los vectores que se realiza durante todo el año, para conocer la presencia de estos en un área geográfica, la densidad de sus poblaciones, así como identificar los principales criaderos y los más productivos. Objetivo: identificación de las especies de culícidos que circularon en la provincia de Matanzas, durante el año 2015, así como la definición de la especie que predominó y tipificación de los depósitos más colonizados por estos en su fase de vida inmadura. Materiales y Métodos: se realizó un análisis de las estadísticas de la vigilancia entomológica durante el año 2015. Según la metodología descrita en el Programa Nacional de Vigilancia y Lucha Antivectorial se clasificó los depósitos, se colectaron y diagnosticaron las muestras. Resultados: las muestras larvarias aportaron la mayor cantidad de datos. Los depósitos de agua situados en el exterior de las viviendas, y dentro de estos las larvitrampas fueron los más utilizados por los mosquitos. La especie predominante en fase inmadura fue Aedes albopictus, mientras que en fase adulta Culex quinquefasciatus. Conclusiones: se identificaron 5 géneros con 25 especies de culícidos, el 36,8 % de la fauna cubana. Como especie predominante se define al A. albopictus. Los depósitos más explotados por estos organismos según su ubicación, fueron los del exterior, y según su tipo, fueron las larvitrampas (grupo E) (AU).

Introduction: the entomological surveillance is the recollection of information on diseases´ vectors and their environment. It is part of the epidemiologic surveillance, and it is an activity of vectors controlling carried out around the year to determine their presence in a geographical area, the density of their populations, and to identify their main breeding places and the most productive ones. Objectives: to identify the culicids species living in the province of Matanzas during 2015, and also to define the predominating specie and to typify the deposits more colonized by them in the in-mature life stage. Materials and Methods: it was carried out an analysis of the entomological surveillance statistics during 2015. The reservoirs were classified, and the samples were collected and diagnosed according to the methodology described in the National Program of Antivectorial Surveillance and Struggle. Results: the larval samples gave the biggest quantity of data. The water reservoirs located outside the living accommodations, and among them the larval traps were the most used by mosquitoes. The predominant specie found in in-mature stage was Aedes albopictus, while Culex quinquefasciatus predominated in adult stage. Conclusions: 5 genus with 25 species of culicids were found, 36.8 of them part of the Cuban fauna. The Aedes albopictus was defined as the predominant specie. The reservoirs most used by these organisms were, according to their location, those located outside, and according to their type, the larval traps (group E) (AU).

Factores de riesgo relacionados con la positividad al mosquito Aedes aegypti en viviendas del área de salud del Policlínico Municipal / Risk factors related to the positivity to Aedes aegypti mosquito in houses of the Municipal Polyclinic health area

Se realizó un estudio de casos y controles representados por 155 y 310 viviendas, respectivamente, para identificar factores de riesgo relacionados con la positividad al mosquito Aedes aegypti en el radio de acción del Policlínico Municipal de Santiago de Cuba, durante el 2012. Entre esos factores de riesgo constituyeron los principales: depósitos bajos no protegidos, patios no saneados, salideros, tanque elevado y otros, acerca de los cuales se obtuvieron el odds ratio, la razón atribuible poblacional y la fracción etiológica. Se concluyó que tales factores perpetuaron la presencia de focos del vector en esos hogares de la mencionada área de salud

A case and control study represented by 155 and 310 houses, respectively, to identify risk factors related to the positivity to Aedes aegypti mosquito in the area of the Municipal Polyclinic in Santiago de Cuba, was carried out during 2012. Among the risk factors there were: unprotected low deposits, dirty yards, likings, high deposits and others, about which the odds ratio, the populational attributable reason and the etiologic fraction were obtained. It was concluded that such factors perpetuated the presence of the vector focuses in those homes of the aforementioned health area

Insect pathogenic fungus interacts with the gut microbiota to accelerate mosquito mortality.

The insect gut microbiota plays crucial roles in modulating the interactions between the host and intestinal pathogens. Unlike viruses, bacteria, and parasites, which need to be ingested to cause disease, entomopathogenic fungi infect insects through the cuticle and proliferate in the hemolymph. However, interactions between the gut microbiota and entomopathogenic fungi are unknown. Here we show that the pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana interacts with the gut microbiota to accelerate mosquito death. After topical fungal infection, mosquitoes with gut microbiota die significantly faster than mosquitoes without microbiota. Furthermore, fungal infection causes dysbiosis of mosquito gut microbiota with a significant increase in gut bacterial load and a significant decrease in bacterial diversity. In particular, the opportunistic pathogenic bacterium Serratia marcescens overgrows in the midgut and translocates to the hemocoel, which promotes fungal killing of mosquitoes. We further reveal that fungal infection down-regulates antimicrobial peptide and dual oxidase expression in the midgut. Duox down-regulation in the midgut is mediated by secretion of the toxin oosporein from B. bassiana Our findings reveal the important contribution of the gut microbiota in B. bassiana-killing activity, providing new insights into the mechanisms of fungal pathogenesis in insects.

GWAS of self-reported mosquito bite size, itch intensity and attractiveness to mosquitoes implicates immune-related predisposition loci.

Understanding the interaction between humans and mosquitoes is a critical area of study due to the phenomenal burdens on public health from mosquito-transmitted diseases. In this study, we conducted the first genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of self-reported mosquito bite reaction size (n = 84,724), itchiness caused by bites (n = 69,057), and perceived attractiveness to mosquitoes (n = 16,576). In total, 15 independent significant (P < 5×10-8) associations were identified. These loci were enriched for immunity-related genes that are involved in multiple cytokine signalling pathways. We also detected suggestive enrichment of these loci in enhancer regions that are active in stimulated T-cells, as well as within loci previously identified as controlling central memory T-cell levels. Egger regression analysis between the traits suggests that perception of itchiness and attractiveness to mosquitoes is driven, at least in part, by the genetic determinants of bite reaction size.Our findings illustrate the complex genetic and immunological landscapes underpinning human interactions with mosquitoes.

Zika Virus: What Do Emergency Physicians Need to Know?

BACKGROUND: Zika virus currently dominates headlines, creating public fear due to its complications. With the ease of worldwide travel, this disease has spread rapidly to the U.S. OBJECTIVES: To provide physicians with an updated clinical review of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, and mimics of zika virus. DISCUSSION: This flavivirus is spread by the bite of the Aedes mosquito during daylight. The ease of worldwide travel has allowed the virus to spread to Mexico and the U.S. Main transmission route is via blood contact or sexual activity involving mucous membranes. Incubation ranges from 2 to 12 days, but only 20% of patients experience symptoms. Fever is low grade with conjunctivitis, arthralgias, myalgias, and a maculopapular rash. Chikungunya and Dengue Fever differ in that patients experience higher fever and no conjunctivitits. The dreaded complication of Zika virus is microcephaly in infants born to infected mothers. Guillain-Barre Syndrome is also linked to the virus. Historical factors including travel history are paramount, and diagnosis includes PCR or serology. No current treatment regimen exists beyond symptom control. The emergency physician must seek to rule out other similar diseases such as malaria, chikungunya, and dengue fever. CONCLUSION: Zika virus has created public fear due to complications, and this flavivirus spread by the Aedes mosquito presents similarly to Chikungunya and Dengue Fever. The dreaded complication of Zika virus is microcephaly in infants born to infected mothers. This review provides key information concerning the disease and management.

Genomic approaches for understanding dengue: insights from the virus, vector, and host.

The incidence and geographic range of dengue have increased dramatically in recent decades. Climate change, rapid urbanization and increased global travel have facilitated the spread of both efficient mosquito vectors and the four dengue virus serotypes between population centers. At the same time, significant advances in genomics approaches have provided insights into host-pathogen interactions, immunogenetics, and viral evolution in both humans and mosquitoes. Here, we review these advances and the innovative treatment and control strategies that they are inspiring.